Chapter 4
Instructional Technology
What is Instructional Technology?
"Instructional Technology (IT) is a system of scientific and rational ideas that improve peoples learning for situations that truly need it.”
IT benefits from long established processes and methods, some times referred to as ‘Prescriptive Principles,’ that are used by instructional designers to create effective instructional interventions. Since there is an existing body of processes and methods for creating instruction the process of creating new instruction does not need to be reinvented every time there is a need for instruction. There are many existing models that contain methods that can either be directly applied or modified to some degree to
create an intervention for an instructional need. This existing collection of models, processes, and methods is a great foundation for an Instructional Designer (IDer) to rely on.So, the implementation of IT follows predictable, logical procedures and methods. As such IT is also systemic in that an instructional designer would not limit their assessment of an instructional need to just “what knowledge” the learner needs to know. The assessment would also involve the IDer to look at the big picture and ask why the performance gap is thought to be a lack of knowledge. This is done just to make sure that it is logical that teaching that knowledge would actually close the assessed performance gap.
Instruction can occur with or without the use of machines. The term 'Technology' often is used synonymously with the use of machines or electronics. IT is not just the electronics or physical machines used to produce instruction it is also the procedures, methods and models used to create instruction. The special use of the word ‘technology’ in this case is broad and actually means ‘any systematic tool’ which as mentioned can include methods and even something as immaterial as an idea.
IT is, in the context mention here, a subsystem of Human Performance Technology (HPT) and as such should be on the hook to ‘produce results’ just as is HPT in general. Because IT is scientific and systematic its interventions should result in a performance improvement in the form increased knowledge. To make sure there is or will be an improvement in the level of knowledge evaluations are conducted not only during the instructional design process but also after the total instructional process is complete, a sort of built in quality control to the process of creating instruction.
As previously mentioned there are many well established procedures that can guide the application of IT, but these heuristic procedures and models are not always enough to create the most effective instructional interventions. Because IT is also a scientific and not just systematic, research is done to investigate theories in the IT field. Through the scientific process of research existing models and principles are either strengthened or discounted thereby improving the overall value of the field of Instructional Technology. So, the IT field is an advancing and improving field. Because of the adherence to science and systematic processes the progression of IT will continue in an upward dialectic improving each progressive cycle. The obvious result will be more and more effective instruction and a greater contribution to HPT as a whole.
Learning Theories
Behaviorism - performances are elicited from a learner by a means of conditioned response.
Cognitive Information Processing - Knowledge transfer can be enhanced by methods designed around the idea of modeling the learners short term and long term memory as described in the cognitive model.
Constructivism - Learners create their own knowledge. Instructors simply facilitate this process.
In the practice of HPT, on the occasion when instruction is the best intervention there are several types of instructional interventions to choose from and several models to aid in the design of the instruction. These interventions are created using instructional theories which are created in the light of various learning theories. Below are listed various notable learning theories, instructional models, and general types of established instructional processes.
Learning Theories
Behaviorism - performances are elicited from a learner by a means of conditioned response.
Cognitive Information Processing - Knowledge transfer can be enhanced by methods designed around the idea of modeling the learners short term and long term memory as described in the cognitive model.
Constructivism - Learners create their own knowledge. Instructors simply facilitate this process.
Models/Instructional Theories
Dick and Carey's ID model
This is the long standing model that is very effect when an instructional intervention is required.
original source of this model
may be found in Dick and Carey's
The Systematic Design of Instruction
Keller's ARCS Model
from IPT 536 FA04 notes
Gange's 9 events of Instructions
Types Instructional Interventions
From the sage on the stage who provides an information dump to interactive to learning skills while at work Instruction can occur in many different ways.
For Further Reading: Instruction as an Intervention by Michael Moleda, and James D. Russell
For Further Reading: Designing Instructional Strategies: A Cognitive Perspective by Kenneth H Silber, and Wellesley R. Foshay
Classroom Instruction
Classroom instruction historically employs an information dump where a SME lectures about his/her knowledge on a giving subject matter. This type of lecture may be more improved if the lecturer ties the lecture into some knowledge the learners already have thereby improving their retention. Further other devices like novel stimulation, or other attention getting devices will also improve knowledge transfer, as will repetition of the subject. However, student driven learning were the instructor steps back and facilitates the learners learning activities may prove to be the most beneficial. This constructivist learning theory is not with out its drawbacks, like the learners not knowing what they don’t know. A more chaotic method of class room based instruction is one that has a Constructivist theory at it's core. This messy for of instruction can have several advantages to the old sage on the stage style of class room like self passed learning, self motivated learning both of which contribute to more meaningful learning.
Team Activities
Team activities add a social component to learning as well as increasing the repetitions of considering a concept, due to the discussion that occurs between group members.
For Further Reading: Games and Simulations for Training: From Group Activities to Virtual Reality by Robert L. Appelman, and John H. Wilson
For Further Reading: Principles and Practices of Work-Group Performance by Michael F. Cassidy, and Megan M. Cassidy
Mentoring
Mentoring like its instructional sibling apprenticeship has great advantages over other types of instruction like learners ability to a master performer do their job first hand, and this also gives the learner the ability to question and get immediate responses about the masters performance. Also, the learner will be able to have the master critique and give immediate feedback on their performance. Of course there are drawbacks to mentoring like perceived competition between the mentor and the mentoree, and the mentor take advantage in various ways.
For Further Reading: Innovations in Performance Improvement with Mentoring by Margo Murray
Multimedia has a short history but it is rapidly growing and changing. Closely tied with distance learning which first employed newspapers or other periodicals to convey instruction outside of the classroom, multimedia also breaks down the boundary of the classroom walls by providing just in time or on demand type of instruction.
Computer Based Training (CBT) has had some success in the last couple decades but major developments have occurred by adding the internet and the world wide web as a fundamental component of CBT.
Web Based Training is instruction that occurs through the use of the world wide web. The following are some major innovations that contributed to the growth and effectiveness of web based training.
ADL - "(Advanced Distributed Learning) The ADL Initiative was established in 1997 to standardize and modernize training and education management and delivery. The Department of Defense (DoD) Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness (OUSD P&R) oversees the ADL Initiative. The vision of the ADL Initiative is to provide access to the highest-quality learning and performance aiding that can be tailored to individual needs and delivered cost-effectively, at the right time and in the right place." from wikipedia.org March, 2009
SCORM - "Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) is a collection of standards and specifications for web-based e-learning. It defines communications between client side content and a host system called the run-time environment" from wikipedia.org March, 2009
LMS - "A learning management system (LMS) is software for delivering, tracking and managing training. LMSs range from systems for managing training records to software for distributing courses over the Internet and offering features for online collaboration. In many instances, corporate training departments purchase LMSs to automate record-keeping as well as the registration of employees for classroom and online courses. Student self-service (e.g., self-registration on instructor-led training), training workflow (e.g., user notification, manager approval, wait-list management), the provision of on-line learning (e.g., Computer-Based Training, read & understand), on-line assessment, management of continuous professional education (CPE), collaborative learning (e.g., application sharing, discussion threads), and training resource management (e.g., instructors, facilities, equipment), are dimensions to Learning Management Systems." from wikipedia.org March, 2009
OJT
On the Job Training may be closely tied with mentoring but were mentoring usually involves a complicated set of skills that are learned over a longer period of time from a master OJT usually involves a simpler set of skills that may be learned simply from other workers performing the tasks of the job
Distance Educations and Distributed Learning
Related to but not equal to PSS and EPSS
Also related to multimedia instruction
For Further Reading: Distance Training by Jose Manuel Ochoa-Alcantar, Christy M. Borders, Barbara A. Bichelmyer
History
Historical Milestones
The 1920s Objectives
The 1930s Behavioral Objectives and Formative Evaluation
The 1940s Instructional Media and Research and Development
The 1950s Programmed Instruction and Task Analysis
The 1960s Instructional Systems Development
The 1970s ID Models and Maturation
The 1980s Microcomputers and Performance Technology
To add to Shrocks list we might suggest that:
The 1990s World Wide Web dissemination of information
The 2000s Improved Bandwidth brings (web 2.0) and true two-way multimedia to the www. Also, increased acceptance and usage of SCORM.
Historical Contributors
Benjamin Bloom - Bloom's Taxonomy
B.F. Skinner - Father of Behaviorism
Thomas Gilbert - Behavioral Engineering Model
Robert Gange - Nine Events of Instruction
Piaget - Formal Operations (developmental stages of learning)
Bruner - Constructivist Instruction (developmental analysis)
Robert Mager - Behavioral Objectives
Dick and Carey - D&C Instructional Model